Historic Sites of India and Southeast Asia

The Prasanna Somesvara Temple is a Shiva temple in Udiyavara near Udupi, Karnataka. Built before 725 CE and attributed to the Alupa dynasty, it is another early apsidal Hindu temple.  The temple is notable for being from one of the oldest surviving Shaiva centers of coastal Karnataka that is mentioned in several inscriptions, all dated between 725 and 770 CE. Its apsidal shape (4:3 ratio) when compared to other early apsidal Hindu found along Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra coastline suggest that apsidal architecture were among the popular early designs in peninsular India.  No traces of Jain or Buddhist art or inscriptions have been found near this temple complex. The Prasanna Somesvara temple has a base of granite that is topped with laterite blocks. It blends Karnata Dravida elements with Tulu Nadu art. The  temple includes a detached Namaskara mandapa of a design typically found in early Kerala. It has a Torana (gateway) and a Nandi mandapa with Rashtrakuta influenc...

In Karnataka’s Sandur, atop Krauncha Giri hill, the Parvati temple is a historic Hindu shrine to Parvati. Nestled amid lush vegetation, its sandstone form and barrel vault style architecture stands out for its time and scale. The Parvati temple is co-located with other historic temples in a complex, including the Shiva temple, Kumaraswamy temple (Kartikeya) and a Vishnu temple. These provide a contrast and evidence that ancient Indian architects and artisans explored different forms of Indian temple design at the same spot. The Parvati temple has a square sanctum in front of which is its notable longish barrel-vaulted antarala. The temple walls are relatively simple. A tpushkarini (water tank) in front of the complex adds to the aesthetic appeal of the site. The 8th and 9th-century site is particularly popular amongst the Hindus when the periodic Neelakurinji flower carpet-flowering highlights the exquisite natural setting around the temple.The  The Parvati temple's barrel vault ar...

In Aihole, Karnataka’s cradle of temple architecture, the 6th-century Ravanaphadi Cave Temple, dedicated to Shiva. It is carved out of a sandstone cliff about 560 CE,  and was likely the earliest Chalukya excavation. The Ravanaphadi cave temple shows Maurya-Kalacuri influences from North India, and artwork that likely inspired South Indian art for next 700 years. This Shiva shrine is a rock-cut shrine with a rectangular sanctum and triple-entranced vestibule. Its walls feature a towering Nataraja, flanked by saptamatrikas, and an Ardhanarishvara relief. In addition, there is a Sanskrit inscription with Indian dating that equals  634 CE in common era calendar. All of these are significant as they help establish the reverence for Nataraja, Saptamatrika and Ardhanarishwara before 634 CE, as only established widespread practices can be expected to inspire such art and a cave temple. It is thus highly likely that Saptamatrika, or seven mother goddesses, were revered in an...

Nestled near Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh, the Naresar Temples Group stands as a captivating testament to India’s rich architectural heritage. A complex of roughly 20 temples, they were mostly built between 810 and 980 CE during the reign of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. The group includes the Krakotakesvara, Pitupretesvara, Valabhi, Sitalesvara, Devi, Mata-ka-mandir, and Ramesvara Mahadeva temples. These shrines, organized into four clusters, were dedicated to Hindu deities like Shiva, Durga, Vishnu, and other divine figures, as evidenced by their sanctum lalitabimba. The site includes water tanks and some early flat roof temples that may be 7th or 8th century. The complex was active through the 13th century as is evidenced by the inscriptions of 1145 and 1272 CE. The Krakotakesvara Temple, dedicated to Shiva, is a standout with its early Nagara-style shikhara and intricate doorframe carvings, featuring Ganga and Yamuna river-goddesses and a flying Garuda holding naga tails—artwork ...

In Alampur Telangana, midst nine historic temples is the late 7th-century Svarga Brahma Temple. It is dedicated to Shiva. A Sanskrit inscription attributes it to Queen  Lokamahadevi ( Vinayavati). It is one of over 400 ancient temples built by Hindu queens all over India.  Its sandstone form, weathered yet elegant, illustrates the north Indian Nagara style with a flair of some south Indian artwork during the Chalukyan era.  Exuberantly ornamented, it compresses a wealth of elements from Hindu architectural texts into harmonious symmetry, weaving iconography from Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism. Niches, pillars, emblems, sukhanasis, gavakshas, amalakas, arches, mithunas, dvarapalas, and gandharvas adorn it, alongside scenes of kama, artha, and dharma. Outer walls bear Vedic and Puranic deities—Shiva as Nataraja or Tripurantaka, Vishnu in avatars like Trivikrama, Devi as Mahishasuramardini—plus Kubera, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Ganga, and Yamuna. Inside, pillars and walls unf...

In Aihole, Karnataka’s ancient laboratory of temple design, the 7th-century Durga Temple is a Chalukyan marvel. To most, this Hindu temple  stands out for its apsidal form.  The temple is named after Durga, but this is not because it was a goddess temple. Its second storey and roof served as a mini fort  (or Durg)  after the 13th-century – a turbulent period of Indian history, and since then it has come to be known as Durga temple. The original temple was  likely dedicated to Vishnu or Surya.  The temple is one of over fifty historic Hindu temples known in India that follow the apsidal or circular form mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple architecture. The temple’s vimāna with its curved design charms with its exquisite structural harmony. The mukhamandapa’s vedi displays finely crafted panels. The colonnaded hall feature richly detailed carvings. The narrative reliefs outside and inside the temple present dynamically carv...

Crowning Aihole’s Meguti Hill is the Meguti Temple. Built about 635 CE, it is a Jaina temple dedicated to Arista Nemi (Mahavira). On its wall is a Sanskrit inscription that attributes it to Ravikirtti, during the reign of Pulakesi II. The temple is made of sandstone. It features a pillared mukhamandapa that may have been added few decades later, given its simpler style and how it seems inserted into the older original temple. It has a shikhara, but like most of Aihole temples, it was damaged and removed at some point in its history. The sanctum doorway of the Meguti Jaina temple features a simple pañcaśākhā frame. Part of the temple was modified into chambers for Jaina monks.  A Kushmandi image was discovered at the temple during its restoration. This is now at the Badami museum. The Meguti temple is plain and unadorned, except along its base with gavakshas and decorative reliefs. Its significance lies in the commanding position it occupies on the hill, suggesting Jainism was ...

In Ellora’s shadowed ravines, the 8th-century Kailasa Temple is a Hindu temple chiselled from a single rock. Its intricate carvings and narrative artwork are a monument to Rastrakuta era excellence. It is  the largest and most remarkable rock-cut temple in the world. The vertical excavation from top to bottom showcases an exquisite engineering feat, removing 200,000 tons of basalt and leaving behind central ideas and legends of Hinduism from Vedic era through about 700 CE. The temple is enormous, measuring about 300 feet long, 175 feet wide, and 107 feet high. It is shaped like a chariot and represents Mount Kailash, Shiva's abode. The central shrine houses a colossal Shiva Lingam, surrounded by finely carved panels depicting Hindu deities with extraordinary detail. The imposing Nandi Mandapa contains a massive statue of Shiva's bull, adding notable grandeur to the entrance pavilion. The courtyard's U-shaped arcade includes effective columned galleries with richly decorated...

The Chota Kailasa is an 8th-century rock-cut Jain temple, fondly named after the much larger and majestic Shiva temple. In Jain tradition, the Ellora hills are called Caranadri. Its records suggest that Hindus and Jains had active monasteries in Ellora. The Chota Kailasa was built at the same time as the larger Kailasa temple for the monastery and schools complex.  The Chota Kailasa was chiselled from a rock-mass to create it midst a 130x80 feet pit on the edge of a basalt cliff. It has three levels (tritala), but for some unknown reason the work was left unfinished in certain sections of the temple. Nevertheless, the finished sections and Jaina carvings echo of Rastrakuta rock-cut mastery. This temple's courtyard includes an exquisite Tirthankara pavilion with finely carved Jaina figures. The garbhagṛha doorway displays a richly decorated pañcaśākhā frame with intricate lotus motifs. The narrative reliefs depict notable scenes from Jaina mythology with dynamic sculptural...

About half kilometer northeast of the Mahakuta group of twenty temples, midst lush trees, is the 8th-century Bhaireshwara temple site. It is a large square plan twin temple with Karnata-Dravida architecture. The two temples stand side by side. They rest on a raised adhiṣṭhāna (plinth). They have plain walls and richly decorated vimana.  The adhiṣṭhāna features the pañcakarma (five-part) molding sequence—upāna (base), jagati (terrace), kumuda (cushion), kanṭha (fillet), and kapota (cornice)—providing an aesthetic rhythm. Each temple includes a pillared hall mandapa. Inside are seated Nandi facing the sanctum with Shiva Linga. These temples are likely from 8th-century, as twin temples are not found in early Chalukya tradition. They may have been an addition to the Mahakuta pilgrimage route. 15.934111 N, 75.725722 E (Zoom in Google Maps)

In Govanaki Karnataka, about 2 kilometers southeast of the Mahakuta group of twenty temples is a 7th-century apsidal Hindu temple. Plain from outside and with a seated Nandi in front, it is dedicated to Shiva. It is also called as the Cikka Mahakuta Shiva temple. The site is smaller. The apsidal Hindu temple follows the Gajapristha rules of Hindu temple architecture. Another example of this design is the more famous Durga temple in Aihole. A third example nearby is the apsidal temple ruins north of Aihole's Cikkigudi. All three apsidal Hindu temples are from Chalukya era. The Cikka Mahakuta apsidal temple faces east and its length to width ratio are 2:1. Inside, its sanctum is also apsidal and concentric, with space for a pradakshinapatha (circumambulation passage). On the outer walls of the sanctum are images of Kartikeya, Ganesha and Mahisasuramardini Durga. Inside is a black stone Shiva linga.  The temple  features two stone jalas (windows) on each side. It had a mukhamanda...

The Banantigudi is a 6th-century Hindu temple in Mahakuta village. It stands about 500 feet southeast from the group of twenty Mahakuta temples near Badami. It is thus a bit isolated, but notable because it is one of the oldest surviving Dravida-style stone temples in upper South India region. The Bananti temple is a simple two level (dvitala) square plan temple carved from fine red sandstone. The door frames, however, echoes north Indian style. The architecture seems to have been inspired by wooden Hindu temples that likely thrived before 6th-century. Its ancient profile has led several scholars to link it to the famous king Pulakesi (c. 550 CE) and to the Mahakuta pillar. A few scholars disagree and date it even earlier, to 5th-century (pre-Pulakesi).  The Banantigudi was badly damaged in 15th-century like rest of Mahakuta group. The mithuna (amorous) figures have been defaced. Some ruins found here suggest this may have been a Hindu goddess temple. The inscriptions found nearby ...

Nestled in Mahakuta village, near Badami in Karnataka, lies a pre-7th-century Chalukya pilgrimage site. A natural spring feeds its tank, ringed by twenty early Hindu temples. Among them stands the Mahakutesvara temple, sponsored by King Mangalesa and dedicated to Shiva. Linked to the Mahakuta Pillar (595–602 CE), the temple is linked to its Sanskrit prashasti inscription. This much studied inscription boasts Chalukyan triumphs. It is known for its poetic exaggeration and an eternal grant of land and other property rights. The  Mahakuteswara  temple's kantha panels gleam with makaras, hamsas, and kinnaras in extraordinary fluency. The doorway boasts a beautifully carved pañcaśākhā frame, alive with vigorous scrolls and exquisite lotus motifs. Notable items include bold Rucaka pilasters, elegant kapotapālikā, richly decorated colonnaded halls, and vivid puṣpaśākhā carvings. Narrative panels unfold dynamic battle scenes from the Ramayana and the Puranas. Mahakuta means "grea...

Tucked in Aihole, Karnataka, the 7th-century Gaudargudi is a Hindu goddess temple and a Chalukyan marvel illustrating early Dravida architecture. In Kannada language, Gaudargudi refers to its original dedication to "Gauri" (Parvati) and gudi (ಗುಡಿ) means "temple". Gaudargudi gave Aihole, also spelled Ayyavole, one of its historic names – Bhagavati Kolla. Some suggest this temple is from 5th-century. Gaudargudi is another damaged Aihole temple. Yet what remains show intricate carvings, along with log-shaped stone beams, evoking pre-4th century Hindu temples of wood. It sits on an elevated platform. The uttara above Gaudargudi's nave columns shows profusely carved vyāla scrolls and medial bands finished with poetic excellence. The sanctum's outer wall is a magnificent kapotapālikā supporting framed niches. The vimāna's superstructure uses vaṅgapālikā courses topped by sloping roof-slabs. The temple's doorway features a beautifully carved pañcaśākhā fra...

In Mahakuta, Karnataka, a quiet village near Badami, the 7th-century Mallikarjuna Temple, dedicated to Shiva, stands amid ancient shrines and waterworks. Its sandstone form and the nearby simpler older temples show how Hindu architecture developed at Mahakuta between about 475 CE and 640 CE. The temple features a south Indian Dravida-style vimana with a tiered tower, complemented by north Indian Nagara influences in nearby shrines. Intricate and beautiful carvings on pillars and walls reflect Chalukyan artistry. The nearby Vishnu Pushkarini tank, fed by a natural spring, holds a submerged Shiva linga. This is an active Hindu temples complex. The temple’s architecture and detailed carvings present additional innovations than those exemplified by the caves and structural temples at Badami. Of particular note are the stone windows and Bhadra images  of Harihara, Shiva and Ardhanarishwara. Inside, the Hara-Gauri (Shiva-Parvati) riding on a leaping Nandi is one of the highlights. A...

Nestled at the base of Badami’s northern hill, the 7th-century Lower Shivalaya illustrates early Dravida architecture. Carved from red sandstone, this modest temple, likely dedicated to Ganesha, boasts intricate doorframes and Hindu artwork. It is another  early Chalukyan masterpiece in the Badami region. Its square sanctum and simple mandapa, though partly ruined, reveal elegant carvings, including defaced mithuna figures. The temple was notable in its own time. For example, it finds mentions in Pallava Tamil inscriptions found over 500 kilometers away. Set against Badami’s dramatic cliffs, it offers a serene glimpse into ancient artistry. The nearby Agastya Lake enhances its spiritual allure for heritage seekers. This temple is best appreciated when its artwork and architecture is compared to the Badami’s cave temples and Pattadakal. Together these are evidence of the sophisticated design and diverse building techniques mastered before 600 AD by Indian artisans under the Chalukya...

In Ittagi, Karnataka, a 7th-century torana stands as a Chalukyan sentinel. Its red sandstone pillars, etched with time, are evidence of a thriving Hindu heritage since ancient times. The torana stands inside the village midst rural homes, unlike the nearby majestic 12th-century Mahadeva temple of Ittagi. This freestanding torana was excavated by digging a rural street. It shows two square pillars and a cross-beam, adorned with kinnara, Gajalakshmi, and lion emblems on one side.  The other side has Vishnu-related motifs such as the conch, discus and other Hindu artwork. The pillars’ cube-and-cushion capitals, dated around 700 CE, reflect early Chalukyan craftsmanship, noted in scholarly studies. The lintel’s artwork, floral motifs and nidhi symbols suggest that it stood at the entrance of a Hindu temple or monastery. The torana’s carvings offer insight into Chalukyan symbolism for those studying India’s heritage. The nearby Puspabhadra Temple in Aihole shares similar artistry....

In Karnataka’s Koppal District, the Mahadeva Temple at Ittagi, a 12th-century Hindu shrine to Shiva, stands as a Chalukyan masterpiece. Built in 1112 CE under Vikramaditya VI, its intricate stonework reflects an era where devotion met unparalleled craftsmanship, defining Western Chalukyan architecture. The temple showcases the Karnata-Dravidian style with a stellate plan and towering sikhara. The mandapa’s pillars, carved with floral and mythical motifs, complement the sanctum’s ornate sakha doorframes. The superstructure, adorned with kuta and sala elements, marks a refined evolution of Chalukyan design as they blend innovation and aesthetic richness in Hindu art. Within a kilometer of the Mahadeva temple are other ruins, Sanskrit inscriptions as well as a beautiful 7th-century torana. These taken together attest to the town's importance for at least a millennium, then suddenly abandoned sometime in or after the 14th century. The Mahadeva Ittagi temple displays how Chalukyan...

Perched atop Badami’s northern hill, the 7th-century Upper Shivalaya Temple commands views over Karnataka’s red sandstone ravine. Despite its name that means "Shiva's temple", this was originally a Vaishnava shrine, dedicated to Vishnu. It embodies early Dravida architecture, a testament to the Chalukya dynasty’s innovative spirit. The temple was completed during Pulakeshi II’s reign. Its sandhara plan features a garbhagriha embedded in a mantapa, with circular windows and an additional storey above, unique for its time. Friezes depicting Krishna’s legends, including Govardhana and Narasimha, adorn the walls, showcasing intricate Chalukya artistry. This temple was damaged after the 13th century, then abandoned. During the British Raj, it was rededicated as a Shiva temple. Though time has worn its edges, the temple’s elevated perch and surviving sculptures evoke a vibrant past. It stands amid forts, a sentinel of Badami’s strategic and spiritual l...