Historic Sites of India and Southeast Asia

In Aihole, Karnataka’s cradle of temple architecture, the 6th-century Ravanaphadi Cave Temple, dedicated to Shiva. It is carved out of a sandstone cliff about 560 CE,  and was likely the earliest Chalukya excavation. The Ravanaphadi cave temple shows Maurya-Kalacuri influences from North India, and artwork that likely inspired South Indian art for next 700 years. This Shiva shrine is a rock-cut shrine with a rectangular sanctum and triple-entranced vestibule. Its walls feature a towering Nataraja, flanked by saptamatrikas, and an Ardhanarishvara relief. In addition, there is a Sanskrit inscription with Indian dating that equals  634 CE in common era calendar. All of these are significant as they help establish the reverence for Nataraja, Saptamatrika and Ardhanarishwara before 634 CE, as only established widespread practices can be expected to inspire such art and a cave temple. It is thus highly likely that Saptamatrika, or seven mother goddesses, were revered in an...

The Banantigudi is a 6th-century Hindu temple in Mahakuta village. It stands about 500 feet southeast from the group of twenty Mahakuta temples near Badami. It is thus a bit isolated, but notable because it is one of the oldest surviving Dravida-style stone temples in upper South India region. The Bananti temple is a simple two level (dvitala) square plan temple carved from fine red sandstone. The door frames, however, echoes north Indian style. The architecture seems to have been inspired by wooden Hindu temples that likely thrived before 6th-century. Its ancient profile has led several scholars to link it to the famous king Pulakesi (c. 550 CE) and to the Mahakuta pillar. A few scholars disagree and date it even earlier, to 5th-century (pre-Pulakesi).  The Banantigudi was badly damaged in 15th-century like rest of Mahakuta group. The mithuna (amorous) figures have been defaced. Some ruins found here suggest this may have been a Hindu goddess temple. The inscriptions found nearby ...

Nestled in Mahakuta village, near Badami in Karnataka, lies a pre-7th-century Chalukya pilgrimage site. A natural spring feeds its tank, ringed by twenty early Hindu temples. Among them stands the Mahakutesvara temple, sponsored by King Mangalesa and dedicated to Shiva. Linked to the Mahakuta Pillar (595–602 CE), the temple is linked to its Sanskrit prashasti inscription. This much studied inscription boasts Chalukyan triumphs. It is known for its poetic exaggeration and an eternal grant of land and other property rights. The  Mahakuteswara  temple's kantha panels gleam with makaras, hamsas, and kinnaras in extraordinary fluency. The doorway boasts a beautifully carved pañcaśākhā frame, alive with vigorous scrolls and exquisite lotus motifs. Notable items include bold Rucaka pilasters, elegant kapotapālikā, richly decorated colonnaded halls, and vivid puṣpaśākhā carvings. Narrative panels unfold dynamic battle scenes from the Ramayana and the Puranas. Mahakuta means "grea...

In Mahakuta, Karnataka, a quiet village near Badami, the 7th-century Mallikarjuna Temple, dedicated to Shiva, stands amid ancient shrines and waterworks. Its sandstone form and the nearby simpler older temples show how Hindu architecture developed at Mahakuta between about 475 CE and 640 CE. The temple features a south Indian Dravida-style vimana with a tiered tower, complemented by north Indian Nagara influences in nearby shrines. Intricate and beautiful carvings on pillars and walls reflect Chalukyan artistry. The nearby Vishnu Pushkarini tank, fed by a natural spring, holds a submerged Shiva linga. This is an active Hindu temples complex. The temple’s architecture and detailed carvings present additional innovations than those exemplified by the caves and structural temples at Badami. Of particular note are the stone windows and Bhadra images  of Harihara, Shiva and Ardhanarishwara. Inside, the Hara-Gauri (Shiva-Parvati) riding on a leaping Nandi is one of the highlights. A...

Rajiv Lochan temple, Rajim Chhattisgarh At Rajim, Chhattisgarh’s sacred heart, where the Mahanadi and Pairi rivers converge, a historic pilgrimage site beckons. Once a capital and pilgrim stop en route to Bhubaneswar–Puri, this tirtha-kshetra, enriched by the distant Sondur river, pulses with spiritual legacy, captivating devotees and history enthusiasts. 6th-century Ganga Rajim’s east bank boasts Chhattisgarh’s finest carved stone temples, dating from the 6th to 12th centuries. The Rajiv Lochana Temple, a 6th–7th-century Vishnu shrine, dazzles with intricate pillars and reliefs of Ganga, Yamuna, Rama, Krishna, and more, alongside a preserved Buddha statue, hinting at the region’s mixed Hindu and Buddhist heritage. Across the river, the Kuleshvara Shiva Temple in Navagaon stands resilient on its octagonal platform, its mandapa pilasters adorned with Kartikeya and Mahisasuramardini. Recent excavations near Sita Bari reveal lost temple ruins, fueling archaeolo...

Tucked among Odisha’s rolling hills, near the Brahmani, Birupa, and Kelua rivers, the Udayagiri Buddhist complex, part of the “diamond triangle” with Lalitagiri and Ratnagiri, stands as a testament to ancient India’s spiritual depth. Known historically as Pushpagiri, a 1st-millennium university rivaling Nalanda, it thrived on Yoga philosophy until the 11th century, drawing Mahayana Buddhists and Hindus. Udayagiri, the largest of the trio, dazzles with its Mahastupa at Udayagiri 1, where four Buddhas in distinct mudras face cardinal directions. Exquisite Padmapani statues and yogi reliefs blend Hindu iconography, while red-brick monastery ruins whisper of a vibrant past, uncovered through 20th-century excavations. Udayagiri 2, spanning 1st-century BCE to post-8th-century CE, showcases evolving Hinayana and Mahayana architecture. Its monasteries, votive stupas, and intricate sculptures echo Krishna valley artistry, though some artworks now reside in Patna and Cuttack m...

Nestled in Odisha’s Kendujhar district, the Sitabhinji site unveils a window into India’s ancient artistry. This 4th–6th-century treasure features a faded yet vivid tempera mural, one of India’s earliest. The mural graces a rock-cut ledge, depicting a king’s procession with horses, an elephant, and attendants in five vibrant colors, captivating art lovers and historians. The mural’s Sanskrit inscription, etched near a horse, hints at a mid-1st-millennium Hindu monument adorned with colorful Shaiva decorations. Nearby, early Odiya and Sanskrit inscriptions, pre-6th-century, mention a lost Shaiva monastery, a guru, his student, and a temple, whispering tales of spiritual life. Late 20th-century excavations uncovered a Gupta-era temple’s remnants, a small stone elephant, and a faced Shiva Linga (mukhalinga). These 6th-century artifacts, alongside untranslated inscription fragments, fuel archaeological intrigue about the unknown mysterious Hindu king. Sit...